Unlike labor groups in some other countries, U.S. unions sought to operate within the existing free enterprise system -- a strategy that made it the despair of socialists. There was no history of feudalism in the United States, and few working people believed they were involved in a class struggle. Instead, most workers simply saw themselves as asserting the same rights to advancement as others. Another factor that helped reduce class antagonism is the fact that U.S. workers -- at least white male workers -- were granted the right to vote sooner than workers in other countries.
Since the early labor movement was largely industrial, union organizers had a limited pool of potential recruits. The first significant national labor organization was the Knights of Labor, founded among garment cutters in 1869 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and dedicated to organizing all workers for their general welfare. By 1886, the Knights had about 700,000 members, including blacks, women, wage-earners, merchants, and farmers alike. But the interests of these groups were often in conflict, so members had little sense of identity with the movement. The Knights won a strike against railroads owned by American millionaire Jay Gould in the mid-1880s, but they lost a second strike against those railroads in 1886. Membership soon declined rapidly.
In 1881, Samuel Gompers, a Dutch immigrant cigar-maker, and other craftsmen organized a federation of trade unions that five years later became the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Its members included only wage-earners, and they were organized along craft lines. Gompers was its first president. He followed a practical strategy of seeking higher wages and better working conditions -- priorities subsequently picked up by the entire union movement.
AFL labor organizers faced staunch employer opposition. Management preferred to discuss wages and other issues with each worker, and they often fired or blacklisted (agreeing with other companies not to hire) workers who favored unions. Sometimes they signed workers to what were known as yellow-dog contracts, prohibiting them from joining unions. Between 1880 and 1932, the government and the courts were generally sympathetic to management or, at best, neutral. The government, in the name of public order, often provided federal troops to put down strikes. Violent strikes during this era resulted in numerous deaths, as persons hired by management and unions fought.
The labor movement suffered a setback in 1905, when the Supreme Court said the government could not limit the number of hours a laborer worked (the court said such a regulation restricted a worker's right to contract for employment). The principle of the "open shop," the right of a worker not to be forced to join a union, also caused great conflict.
The AFL's membership stood at 5 million when World War I ended. The 1920s were not productive years for organizers, however. Times were good, jobs were plentiful, and wages were rising. Workers felt secure without unions and were often receptive to management claims that generous personnel policies provided a good alternative to unionism. The good times came to an end in 1929, however, when the Great Depression hit.
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Next Article: The Great Depression and Labor
This article is adapted from the book "Outline of the U.S. Economy" by Conte and Carr and has been adapted with permission from the U.S. Department of State.
